Social liberalism is a political philosophy and variety of liberalism that endorses social justice, social services, a mixed economy, and the expansion of civil and political rights, as opposed to classical liberalism which favors limited government and an overall more laissez-faire style of governance. While both are committed to personal freedoms, social liberalism places greater emphasis on the role of government in addressing social inequalities and ensuring public welfare.
Social liberal governments address economic and social issues such as poverty, welfare spending, infrastructure, healthcare, and education using government intervention, while emphasising individual rights and autonomy.
Economically, social liberalism is based on the social market economy and views the common good as harmonious with the individual's freedom.[De Ruggiero, Guido (1959). The History of European Liberalism. pp. 155–157.] Social liberals overlap with social democrats in accepting market intervention more than other liberals;
Social liberal ideas and parties tend to be considered Centrism to centre-left, although there are deviations from these positions to both the political left or right.
Social liberalism may also refer to American progressive stances on sociocultural issues,
Origins
United Kingdom
By the end of the 19th century, downturns in economic growth challenged the principles of classical liberalism, a growing awareness of poverty and unemployment present within modern industrial cities, and the agitation of
organised labour. A significant political reaction against the changes introduced by industrialisation and
laissez-faire capitalism came from one-nation conservatives concerned about social balance and the introduction of the famous Education Act 1870. However,
socialism later became a more important force for change and reform. Some Victorian writers—including
Charles Dickens,
Thomas Carlyle and
Matthew Arnold—became early influential critics of social injustice.
[Richardson, pp. 36–37.]
John Stuart Mill contributed enormously to liberal thought by combining elements of classical liberalism with what eventually became known as the new liberalism. Mill developed this philosophy by liberalising the concept of consequentialism to promote a rights based system.
New Liberals
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a group of British thinkers known as the New Liberals made a case against
laissez-faire classical liberalism. It argued in favour of state intervention in social, economic and cultural life. What they proposed is now called social liberalism.
[Michael Freeden (1978). The New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Reform. Oxford: Oxford University Press.] The New Liberals, including intellectuals Thomas Hill Green,
Leonard Hobhouse and John A. Hobson, saw individual liberty achievable only under favourable social and economic circumstances.
In their view, the poverty, squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. New Liberals believed through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented and interventionist state could alleviate these conditions.
The Liberal governments of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and H. H. Asquith, mainly thanks to Chancellor of the Exchequer and later Prime Minister David Lloyd George, established the foundations of the welfare state in the United Kingdom before World War I. The comprehensive welfare state built in the United Kingdom after World War II, although primarily accomplished by the Labour Party's Attlee ministry, was significantly designed by two Liberals, namely John Maynard Keynes (who laid the foundations in economics with the Keynesian Revolution) and William Beveridge (whose Beveridge Report was used to design the welfare system).
Historian Peter Weiler has argued:
Although still partially informed by older Liberal concerns for character, self-reliance, and the capitalist market, this legislation nevertheless marked a significant shift in Liberal approaches to the state and social reform, approaches that later governments would slowly expand and that would grow into the welfare state after the Second World War. What was new in these reforms was the underlying assumption that the state could be a positive force, that the measure of individual freedom ... was not how much the state left people alone, but whether he gave them the capacity to fill themselves as individuals.[Weiler, Peter (2016). "New Liberalism". In Leventhal, Fred M., ed. (1995). Twentieth-century Britain: An Encyclopedia. Garland. pp. 564–565.][Weiler, Peter (2016). The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914 (2016). Excerpt .]
Germany
The term "Social Liberalism" may have first been employed by
Max Stirner in his primary work, The Ego and its Own, used to ridicule
Socialism.
In 1860s Germany, left-liberal politicians like Max Hirsch, Franz Duncker, and Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch established —modelled on their British counterparts—to help workers improve working and economic conditions through reconciliation of interests and cooperation with their employers rather than class struggle. Schulze-Delitzsch is also the founding father of the German cooperative movement and the organiser of the world's first . Some liberal economists, such as Lujo Brentano or Gerhart von Schulze-Gävernitz, established the Verein für Socialpolitik (German Economic Association) in 1873 to promote social reform based on the historical school of economics and therefore rejecting classical economics, proposing a third way between Manchester Liberalism and socialist revolution in the 1871-founded German Empire.
However, the German left-liberal movement fragmented into wings and new parties over the 19th century. The main objectives of the left-liberal parties—the German Progress Party and its successors—were free speech, freedom of assembly, representative government, secret and equal but obligation-tied suffrage, and protection of private property. At the same time, they were strongly opposed to creating a welfare state, which they called state socialism. The main differences between the left-liberal parties were:
-
The national ambitions.
-
The different substate people's goals.
-
Free trade against Schutzzollpolitik.
-
The building of the national economy.
The term social liberalism () was used first in 1891 by Austria-Hungary economist and journalist Theodor Hertzka.[Theodor Hertzka: Socialdemokratie und Socialliberalismus (German). Dresden/Leipzig: Pierson. 1891.] Subsequently, in 1893, the historian and Reform movement Ignaz Jastrow also used this term and joined the German Economic Association. He published the socialist democratic manifesto "Social-liberal: Tasks for Liberalism in Prussia" to create an "action group" for the general people's welfare in the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which they rejected.
The National-Social Association, founded by the Protestant pastor Friedrich Naumann also maintained contacts with the left liberals.
In the Weimar Republic, the German Democratic Party was founded and came into an inheritance of the left-liberal past and had a leftist social wing
After 1945, the Free Democrats included most of the social liberals, including Naumann and Brentano disciple Theodor Heuss who became the first party chairman and the first Federal President of West Germany. Other social liberals joined the Christian Democratic Union of Germany. Until the 1960s, post-war ordoliberalism was the model for Germany. It had a theoretical social liberal influence based on duty and rights.[Hartwich, Oliver Marc (2009). "Neoliberalism: The Genesis of a Political Swearword". ]
During the 1950s and 1960s, the Free Democratic Party was dominated by conservative liberals, national liberals and classical liberals. However, in the 1970s, the party was briefly influenced by Progressivism and social liberal ideas which culminated in the 1971 Freiburg Thesis programme.[Karl-Hermann Flach, Werner Maihofer und Walter Scheel: Die Freiburger Thesen der Liberalen. Rowohlt, Reinbek 1972, ISBN 3-499-11545-X.] In 1977, the social liberal era came to an end with the more economically liberal Kiel Thesis programme ( Kieler Thesen) effectively setting the party back on a classical liberal course.
As the Free Democrats discarded social liberal ideas in a more conservative and economically liberal approach,
France
In France, solidaristic thinkers, including Alfred Fouillée and Émile Durkheim, developed the social-liberal theory in the Third Republic.
Sociology inspired them, and they influenced radical politicians like Léon Bourgeois. They explained that a more extensive division of labour caused more opportunity and
individualism and inspired more complex interdependence. They argued that the individual had a debt to society, promoting progressive taxation to support public works and welfare schemes. However, they wanted the state to coordinate rather than manage, encouraging cooperative insurance schemes among individuals. Their main objective was to remove barriers to social mobility rather than create a welfare state.
[Eatwell, Roger; Wright, Anthony (1999). Contemporary Political Ideologies (1999). pp. 35–36.]
United States
Social liberalism was a term in the United States to differentiate it from classical liberalism or
laissez-faire. It dominated political and economic thought for several years until the word branched off from it around the
Great Depression and the
New Deal.
James L. Richardson (2025). 155587939X, Lynne Rienner Publishers. 155587939X
In the 1870s and the 1880s, the American economists Richard Ely, John Bates Clark, and Henry Carter Adams—influenced both by
socialism and the Evangelical Protestant movement—castigated the conditions caused by industrial factories and expressed sympathy toward
labor unions. However, none developed a systematic political philosophy, and they later abandoned their flirtations with socialist thinking. In 1883, Lester Frank Ward published the two-volume
Dynamic Sociology. He formalized the basic tenets of social liberalism while at the same time attacking the
laissez-faire policies advocated by
Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner. The historian Henry Steele Commager ranked Ward alongside
William James,
John Dewey, and Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. and called him the father of the modern welfare state.
[Commager, Henry Steele, ed. (1967). Lester Ward and the Welfare State. New York: Bobbs-Merrill.] A writer from 1884 until the 1930s, John Dewey—an educator influenced by Hobhouse, Green, and Ward—advocated socialist methods to achieve liberal goals. John Dewey's expanding popularity as an economist also coincided with the greater
Georgism movement that rose in the 1910s, pinnacling with the presidency of
Woodrow Wilson.
America later incorporated some social liberal ideas into the
New Deal,
[Richardson, pp. 38–41.] which developed as a response to the
Great Depression when Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office.
Implementation
The welfare state grew gradually and unevenly from the late 19th century but fully developed following World War II, along with the mixed market economy and general welfare capitalism.
Also called embedded liberalism, social liberal policies gained broad support across the political spectrum because they reduced society's disruptive and polarizing tendencies without challenging the capitalist economic system. Businesses accepted social liberalism in the face of widespread dissatisfaction with the boom and bust cycle of the earlier financial system as it seemed to them to be a lesser evil than more left-wing modes of government. Characteristics of social liberalism were cooperation between big business, government, and labour unions. Governments could assume a vital role because the wartime economy had strengthened their power, but the extent to which this occurred varied considerably among Western democracies.
[Richardson, pp. 137–138.] Social liberalism is also a generally internationalist ideology.
Social liberalism has also historically been an advocate for
liberal feminism among other forms social progress.
Social liberals tend to find a compromise between the perceived extremes of unrestrained capitalism and state socialism to create an economy built on regulated capitalism.
United Kingdom
The first notable implementation of social liberal policies occurred under the Liberal Party in Britain from 1906 until 1914. These initiatives became known as the Liberal welfare reforms. The main elements included pensions for poor older adults, and health, sickness, and unemployment insurance. These changes were accompanied by progressive taxation, particularly in the People's Budget of 1909. The old system of charity relying on the Poor Laws and supplemented by private charity, public cooperatives, and private insurance companies was in crisis, giving the state added impetus for reform. The Liberal Party caucus elected in 1906 also contained more professionals, including academics and journalists, sympathetic to social liberalism. The large business owners had mostly deserted the Liberals for the Conservatives, the latter becoming the favourite party for commercial interests. Both business interests and trade unions regularly opposed the reforms. Liberals most identified with these reforms were Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, John Maynard Keynes, David Lloyd George (especially as Chancellor of the Exchequer), and Winston Churchill (as President of the Board of Trade), in addition to the civil servant (and later Liberal MP) William Beveridge.
[Feuchtwanger, pp. 273–317.]
Most of the Social democracy parties in Europe (notably the British Labour Party) have taken on strong influences of social liberal ideology. Despite Britain's two major parties coming from the traditions of socialism and conservatism, the most substantive political and economic debates of recent times were between social liberal and classical liberal concepts.
Germany
Alexander Rüstow, a German economist, first proposed the German variant of economically social liberalism. In 1932, he dubbed this kind of social liberalism
neoliberalism while speaking at the Social Policy Association. However, that term now carries a meaning different from the one proposed by Rüstow. Rüstow wanted an alternative to socialism and the classical liberal economics developed in the
German Empire. In 1938, Rüstow met with various economic thinkers—including
Ludwig Mises,
Friedrich Hayek, and Wilhelm Röpke—to determine how and what could renew liberalism. Rüstow advocated a powerful state to enforce free markets and state intervention to correct
. However, Mises argued that monopolies and cartels operated because of state intervention and protectionism and claimed that the only legitimate role for the state was to abolish barriers to market entry. He viewed Rüstow's proposals as negating market freedom and saw them as similar to socialism.
Following World War II, the West German government adopted Rüstow's neoliberalism, now usually called ordoliberalism or the social market economy, under Ludwig Erhard. He was the Minister of Economics and later became Chancellor. Erhard lifted price controls and introduced free markets. While Germany's post-war economic recovery was due to these policies, the welfare state—which Bismarck had established—became increasingly costly.
Turkey
The Kemalist economic model was designed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1930s, founder of the Republic of Turkey, after an unsuccessful attempt to embrace a
Regulated market from İzmir Economic Congress until the
Great Depression. He put the principle of "etatism" in his Six Arrows and stated that etatism was a unique economic system for Turkey and that it was different from
socialism,
communism, and collectivism.
Atatürk explained his economic idea as follows:
State can't take the place of individuals, but, it must take into consideration the individuals to make them improve and develop theirselves. Etatism includes the work that individuals won't do because they can't make profit or the work which are necessary for national interests. Just as it is the duty of the state to protect the freedom and independence of the country and to regulate internal affairs, the state must take care of the education and health of its citizens. The state must take care of the roads, railways, telegraphs, telephones, animals of the country, all kinds of vehicles and the general wealth of the nation to protect the peace and security of the country. During the administration and protection of the country, the things we just counted are more important than cannons, rifles and all kinds of weapons. (...) Private interests are generally the opposite of the general interests. Also, private interests are based on rivalries. But, you can't create a stable economy only with this. People who think like that are delusional and they will be a failure. (...) And, work of an individual must stay as the main basis of economic growth. Not preventing an individual's work and not obstructing the individual's freedom and enterprise with the state's own activities is the main basis of the principle of democracy.
Moreover, Atatürk said this in his opening speech on 1 November 1937: "Unless there is an absolute necessity, the Market economy can't be intervened; also, no markets can be completely free."
Rest of Europe
The post-war governments of other countries in Western Europe also followed social liberal policies. These policies were implemented primarily by Christian democrats and
Social democracy as liberal parties in Europe declined in strength from their peak in the 19th century.
[Adams, p. 32.]
United States
American political discourse resisted this social turn in European liberalism. While the economic policies of the
New Deal appeared
Keynesianism, there was no revision of liberal theory in favour of more significant state initiatives. Even though the United States lacked an effective socialist movement, New Deal policies often appeared radical and were attacked by the right. American liberalism would eventually evolve into a more
Anti-communism ideology as a result.
American exceptionalism was likely the reason for the separate development of modern liberalism in the United States, which kept mainstream American ideology within a narrow range.
[ Contending liberalisms in world politics: ideology and power (2001), James L. Richardson, pp. 38–41 ]
John Rawls' principal work, A Theory of Justice (1971), can be considered a flagship exposition of social liberal thinking, noted for its use of analytic philosophy and advocating the combination of individual freedom and a fairer distribution of resources.
Decline
Following economic problems in the 1960s and 1970s, liberal thought underwent some transformation. Keynesian financial management faced criticism for interfering with the free market. At the same time, increased welfare spending funded by higher taxes prompted fears of lower investment, lower consumer spending, and the creation of a "dependency culture." Trade unions often caused high wages and industrial disruption, while total employment was considered unsustainable. Writers such as
Milton Friedman and
Samuel Brittan, whom Friedrich Hayek influenced, advocated a reversal of social liberalism. Their policies—often called
neoliberalism—had a significant influence on Western politics, most notably on the governments of United Kingdom Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and the United States President
Ronald Reagan. They pursued policies of
deregulation of the economy and reduction in spending on social services.
Part of the reason for the collapse of the social liberal coalition was a challenge in the 1960s and 1970s from financial interests that could operate independently of national governments. A related reason was the comparison of ideas such as socialized medicine, advocated by politicians such as Franklin D. Roosevelt, facing criticisms and being dubbed as socialist by conservatives during the midst of the Red Scare, notably by the previously mentioned Reagan.[Richardson, pp. 138–139.]
Contemporary revival of social liberal thought
From the end of the 20th century, at the same time that it was losing political influence, social liberalism experienced an intellectual revival with several substantial authors, including John Rawls (political philosophy),
Amartya Sen (philosophy and economy),
Ronald Dworkin (philosophy of law),
Martha Nussbaum (philosophy),
Bruce Ackerman (constitutional law), and others.
Parties and organisations
In Europe, social liberal parties tend to be small or medium-sized
Centrism and
centre-left parties.
Examples of successful European social liberal parties participating in government coalitions at national or regional levels include the Liberal Democrats in the United Kingdom, the Democrats 66 in the Netherlands, and the Danish Social Liberal Party. In continental European politics, social liberal parties are integrated into the
Renew Europe group in the European Parliament, the fifth biggest group in the parliament, and includes social liberal parties, market liberal parties, and centrist parties. Other groups such as the European People's Party, the Greens–European Free Alliance, and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats also house some political parties with social-liberal factions.
In North America, social liberalism (as Europe would refer to it) tends to be the dominant form of liberalism present, so in common parlance, "liberal" refers to social liberals. In Canada, social liberalism is held by the Liberal Party of Canada, while in the United States, social liberalism is a significant force within the Democratic Party.
Giving an exhaustive list of social liberal parties worldwide is difficult, mainly because political organisations are not always ideologically pure, and party ideologies often change over time. However, peers such as the Africa Liberal Network, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party, the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats, the European Liberal Forum, the Liberal International, and the Liberal Network for Latin America or scholars usually accept them as parties who are following social liberalism as a core ideology.
Social liberal parties or parties with social liberal factions
Social liberal political parties that are more left-biased than general
centre-left parties are not described here. (See list of progressive parties)
-
Åland: Liberals for Åland
-
Andorra: Action for Andorra
-
Argentina: Radical Civic Union
[Godio, Julio; Robles, Alberto José (2008). El tiempo de CFK; entre la movilización y la institucionalidad: El desafío de organizar los mercados (in Spanish). Corregidor. p. 65.]
-
Australia: Liberal Party of Australia (factions),
-
Bahamas: Progressive Liberal Party
-
Belgium: DéFI,
-
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Our Party
-
Brazil : Cidadania, Brazilian Social Democracy Party
-
Canada: Liberal Party of Canada
-
Chile: Radical Party of Chile, Liberal Party of Chile
-
Croatia: Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats,
-
Czech Republic: Czech Pirate Party
[Maškarinec, Pavel (2017). "The Czech Pirate Party in the 2010 and 2013 Parliamentary Elections and the 2014 European Parliament Elections: Spatial Analysis of Voter Support" . Slovak Journal of Political Sciences. Walter de Gruyter. 17 (1).]
-
Denmark: Danish Social Liberal Party
-
Egypt: Constitution Party
-
Estonia: Estonian Centre Party,
-
European Union: Volt Europa
-
Faroe Islands: Self-Government Party
-
Finland: Centre Party,
-
France: Renaissance,
-
Germany: Liberal Democrats,
[Breyman, Steve (2019). Movement Genesis: Social Movement Theory And The West German Peace Movement. "The Liberal Democrats (Liberale Demokraten or LD) split from the FDP to create their own social-left liberal alternative."] Free Democratic Party (factions),[Thomas Bräuninger and Marc Debus (10 February 2021). BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN.]
-
Greenland: Democrats
-
Hungary: Democratic Coalition
-
Iceland: Bright Future
-
India: Indian National Congress
-
Indonesia: Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle
-
Israel: Israel Resilience Party,
-
Italy: Democratic Party (factions),
-
Japan: Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan
-
Kosovo: Democratic Party of Kosovo
-
Latvia: Development/For!
-
Lesotho: Revolution for Prosperity
-
Luxembourg: Democratic Party
[Hearl, Derek (1988). "The Luxembourg Liberal Party". In Kirchner, Emil Joseph (ed.). Liberal Parties in Western Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 376–395. .][Terzis, Georgios (2007). European Media Governance: National and Regional Dimensions. Intellect Books. p. 135. .][Magone, José (2010). Contemporary European Politics: A Comparative Introduction. Routledge. p. 436. .]
-
Malaysia: Democratic Action Party,
[Senkyr, Jan (2013). "Political Awakening in Malaysia" . KAS International Reports. Retrieved 24 June 2019.]
-
Montenegro: Positive Montenegro,
-
Morocco: Citizens' Forces
-
Myanmar: National League for Democracy,
-
Netherlands: Democrats 66
-
New Zealand: New Zealand Labour Party (factions)
-
Norway: Liberal Party
-
Philippines: Liberal Party
-
Poland: Polish Initiative, Your Movement, Union of European Democrats
-
Portugal: Together for the People,
-
Romania: PRO Romania
-
Russia: Yabloko
-
Serbia: Democratic Party
-
Slovakia: Progressive Slovakia
-
Slovenia: List of Marjan Šarec,
-
South Africa: Democratic Alliance
-
South Korea: Democratic Party of Korea,
[Denney, Steven (31 December 2015). "An Identity Crisis for South Korea's Opposition" . The Diplomat. Retrieved 24 June 2019. "South Korea's main opposition social-liberal party is reeling (again) from intraparty factional struggle. Rebranded earlier this week "the Minjoo Party of Korea" (formerly New Politics Alliance for Democracy), the party is searching for a new identity and direction after high profile and popular assemblyperson Ahn Cheol-soo defected on 13 December."] Justice Party
-
Sweden: Liberals (factions),
-
Switzerland: Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (faction)
-
Taiwan: Democratic Progressive Party
-
Trinidad and Tobago: People's National Movement
-
Turkey: Good Party
-
United Kingdom: Liberal Democrats,
-
United States: Democratic Party
Historical social liberal parties or parties with social liberal factions
-
Andorra: Democratic Renewal
-
Australia: Australian Democrats
-
Belgium: Spirit
-
France: Radical Movement
-
Germany: Free-minded People's Party,
[Stargardt, Nicholas (1994). The German Idea of Militarism: Radical and Socialist Critics 1866-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 31.][Winkler, Jürgen R. (1995). Sozialstruktur, politische Traditionen und Liberalismus. Eine empirische Längsschnittstudie zur Wahlentwicklung in Deutschland, 1871–1933. Springer. p. 66.][Sperber, Jonathan (1997). The Kaiser's Voters: Electors and Elections in Imperial Germany. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.] Progressive People's Party
-
Greece: The River
-
Hungary: Alliance of Free Democrats
-
Iceland: Liberal Party,
-
Israel: Independent Liberals,
-
Italy: Action Party,
-
Japan: Japan Socialist Party (factions),
[Franičević, Vojimir; Kimura, Hiroshi, eds. (2003) Globalization, Democratization and Development: European and Japanese Views of Change in South East Europe. "Towards the end of the 1990s the social-liberal Minshuto (Democratic Party of Japan, DPJ) consolidated and replaced Shinshinto as a rival of LDP."]
-
Latvia: Society for Political Change
-
Lithuania: New Union (Social Liberals)
-
Luxembourg: Radical Socialist Party
[Hearl, Derek (1988). "The Luxembourg Liberal Party". In Kirchner, Emil (ed.). Liberal Parties in Western Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 373–395. .]
-
Malta: Democratic Party
-
Moldova: Our Moldova Alliance
-
Netherlands: Free-thinking Democratic League
-
Poland: Democratic Party – demokraci.pl,
[ "Kann dieser schwule Atheist Polen verändern?" . Bild. 5 February 2019.][ ""Frühling" macht der linken Mitte Hoffnung" . Deutschlandfunk. 3 February 2019.]
-
Russian: Constitutional Democratic Party
-
Slovenia: Liberal Democracy of Slovenia,
-
South Korea: Progressive Party (1956), Uri Party, Grand Unified Democratic New Party
-
Spain: Union, Progress and Democracy
[ "UPyD. Ideology: centralism, social liberalism. Political Position: Centre". European Social Survey. .]
-
Switzerland: Ring of Independents
-
United Kingdom: Liberal Party,
Notable thinkers
Some notable scholars and politicians ordered by date of birth who are generally considered as having made significant contributions to the evolution of social liberalism as a political ideology include:
See also
-
Classical radicalism
-
Constitutional liberalism
-
Left-libertarianism
-
Liberalism by country
-
Liberal parties by country
-
Neo-libertarianism
-
Social–liberal coalition
-
Social market economy
-
Woke
Notes
Sources
-
Adams, Ian (2001). Political ideology today. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001. .
-
De Ruggiero, Guido (1959). The History of European Liberalism. Boston: Beacon Press.
-
Faulks, Keith (1999). Political Sociology: A Critical Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. .
-
Feuchtwanger, E. J. (1985). Democracy and Empire: Britain 1865-1914. London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd. .
-
Richardson, James L. (2001). Contending Liberalisms in World Politics. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. .
-
Slomp, Hans (2000). European Politics Into the Twenty-first Century: Integration and Division. Westport: Praeger Publishers. .
Further reading
External links
